Warning: This text discusses express grownup content material and little one sexual abuse materials (CSAM)
One of many world’s largest on-line online game marketplaces says it has referred consumer accounts to authorized authorities after a Bellingcat investigation discovered tokens to create nonconsensual pornographic deepfakes have been being surreptitiously offered on the positioning.
Accounts on G2A have been getting used to gather funds for Clothoff, probably the most widespread and controversial nonconsensual pornographic deepfake websites on the web. Clothoff disguised the gross sales as in the event that they have been for downloadable gaming content material.
“Safety is certainly one of our prime priorities that we by no means compromise on, therefore we’ve got taken rapid motion and suspended the sellers in query till we’ve got investigated it totally,” G2A stated, in an announcement. “We additionally determined to report the case to the suitable authorities.” (G2A stated it was reporting the accounts and the businesses affiliated with them to authorities within the “firms’ international locations of origin” which, as this story outlines under, varies however contains the US and New Zealand.)
Clothoff is a part of a loosely affiliated community of comparable platforms uncovered in Bellingcat’s investigation.
The community, which additionally contains the websites Nudify, Undress, and DrawNudes, has variously manipulated monetary and on-line service suppliers that ban grownup content material and non-consensual deep fakes by disguising their actions to evade crackdowns. Different companies they’ve tried to use embody Coinbase, Patreon, Paypal, Shopify, Steam and Stripe.
Behind one G2A account that was promoting tokens for Clothoff is an IT options agency known as Aurora Borealis Restricted Legal responsibility Firm, listed on the account’s contact web page. On its web site, Aurora Borealis claims G2A is certainly one of its companions, which the gaming market stated is fake.
Aurora’s CEO, a Valencia-based entrepreneur named Vitalii Ionov, didn’t reply to a request for remark, nor did his firm. Ionov, as this investigation particulars, is affiliated with a number of entities that overlap with Clothoff and the community of deepfake porn websites. One other firm he’s listed because the CEO of has additionally falsely claimed to be companions with different firms, together with Microsoft.
This investigation additionally uncovered a faux Clothoff CEO who was, in reality, an AI-generated picture. The faux CEO however, a path of open supply information reveals a unfastened community of actual firms with actual folks connected to them behind Clothoff, Nudify, Undress, and DrawNudes.
The speedy proliferation of non-consensual pornographic deepfakes is an alarming phenomenon. Legislators within the UK not too long ago made sharing such photos unlawful, whereas a bipartisan group of US Senators have proposed a regulation that may permit folks to sue over them. Pictures of underage women generated by Clothoff are at present the topic of a Spanish police investigation.
A latest report by impartial analysis group Graphika stated that there was a 2,408 per cent enhance in referral hyperlinks to nonconsensual pornographic deepfake websites throughout Reddit and X in 2023. A 2019 report by Sensity, an organization that detects and displays deepfakes, discovered that 96 per cent of deepfakes are non-consensual porn and, of these, 99 per cent are of ladies.
On this story, we take you thru how we linked a number of the largest AI deepfake domains collectively, how we traced their illicit monetary networks, and the way we found the folks working within the shadows behind them.
Linking the Domains
Clothoff, DrawNudes, Nudify, and Undress all permit customers to “undress” images of any lady utilizing AI, producing non-consensual intimate photos of them. In doing so, they’ve racked up tens of thousands and thousands of web site visits in simply the previous 4 months. Within the dozens of Telegram teams we discovered arrange by these web sites, some had as many as 800,000 followers.
After analyzing the 4 platforms, we are able to reveal they’re a part of the identical loosely affiliated community. We decided this by analyzing an internet of myriad domains for every platform, discovering a synthesis that bridged them collectively.
The entire 4 main platforms we researched have a devoted second-level area or SLD (e.g., Undress, Clothoff) and, out of that, every has a number of related or duplicate web sites throughout completely different top-level domains or TLDs (e.g., .vip, .io, .on-line).
That is illustrated under, the place you’ll be able to see a number of the a number of TLDs of Undress.
We used DomainTools, a analysis supplier that collects Whois and different Area Identify System (DNS) profile knowledge, to determine which TLDs have been registered by the 4 platforms and visited every web site. Throughout all of the domains belonging to Clothoff, Nudify, Undress, and DrawNudes, we discovered strikingly related web site layouts and designs. A number of net addresses additionally redirect inside the community of associated platforms: for instance, there are Undress domains that redirect to a Clothoff area. There are additionally domains the place a web site bears the title of one of many different platforms inside the community — for instance, one web site with Nudify because the SLD had an Undress banner on the positioning itself.
Under you’ll be able to see clear repetitions within the net designs used often throughout the web sites, together with throughout Clothoff, Nudify, Undress, and Drawnudes websites.
Overlapping data additionally appeared on the websites. Whereas not each web site listed an organization or LLC as its proprietor, a number of of them did and there have been commonalities.
Three firms particularly — BS Europe OÜ, GG Expertise Ltd, and Itai Tech Ltd — have been variously listed throughout the websites. Initially, it appeared that BS Europe OÜ was solely listed on Clothoff websites, GG Expertise Ltd on DrawNudes websites, and Itai Tech Ltd on Undress and Nudify websites.
Nevertheless, cached variations of the web sites and their domains captured by Google revealed that older variations of not less than three Clothoff websites additionally listed Itai Tech Ltd as their proprietor.
The fee websites look extremely related, with three out of 4 even utilizing the identical picture and textual content title. We used Chrome’s built-in developer instruments to examine each, discovering that they used the identical template. As effectively, three of the 4 fee websites record the identical firm, Golden Falcon – FZCO, as their copyright holder, whereas one other lists GG Expertise Ltd.
On condition that so lots of the net domains regarded related — and lots of have been registered across the similar time as one another — we investigated if there have been any additional connections of their internet hosting infrastructure.
Utilizing the software RiskIQ, we have been capable of lookup the internet hosting historical past of the websites. Whereas a number of the domains are hosted on shared servers with 1000’s of different unrelated web sites, we discovered that some have been hosted on a devoted server. The devoted servers we discovered hosted a small record of domains, a lot of which have been associated to deepfake pornography. This was one other clue that the identical entity is behind the Clothoff, Nudify, Undress, and DrawNudes platforms and their varied websites.
For instance, for one of many devoted server IPs, we discovered 35 domains that included “Clothoff”, “Undress”, and different related domains (e.g., “deepnudify”) offering so-called nudify companies. On this server, nearly all of the domains additionally resolved on the identical two dates in 2023, one other indication that they’re associated.
We additionally discovered cloned copies of different AI web sites on this server, reminiscent of an AI writing service that didn’t seem to have any connections to the deepfake community. We later discovered proof that the cloned AI writing web site was getting used as a redirect to obscure funds.
Taken collectively, this proof reveals a robust correlation between Clothoff, Nudify, Undress, and DrawNudes, with their web site structure appearing as a key clue in revealing their standing as one shared community.
Unravelling the Video Sport Scheme
Clothoff and DrawNudes acquire funds by means of a number of third-party websites that aren’t conventional fee processors, concealing the true nature of the transactions and violating the phrases of the websites.
Most notably, they used a number of gaming-related web sites, amongst them a lesser-known web site known as Skinsback and the favored gaming market G2A. In these instances, they faux to promote and commerce video game-related content material however, in reality, taking fee for “cash” that may be redeemed to create AI pornographic deepfakes.
Within the case of Skinsback, Clothoff is utilizing the positioning to facilitate trades of online game skins through the massively widespread gaming platform Steam on their behalf. (“Skins” is a time period for customized graphics that may change the looks of one thing in a sport, the buying and selling of customized and added sport content material like that is a part of a $50 billion market).
Bellingcat was capable of decide this by navigating to the funds part of Clothoff’s web site. Customers are provided the choice to pay through Steam.
When customers click on on the hyperlink, they’re redirected to a URL on Skinsback.
Skinsback then asks a consumer so as to add funds to Clothoff’s account by exchanging bought customized gaming content material, often known as “skins,” through Steam for Clothoff cash. To be able to make the trades, they’re requested to offer a URL from their Steam account that enables for the buying and selling of gaming content material.
“They’re utilizing our skins fee gate for deposits,” Skinsback stated of Clothoff, through a Telegram message.
Nevertheless, a spokesperson for Steam stated this type of buying and selling “violates the Steam Subscriber Settlement” and that the corporate is investigating.
Whereas the Steam transactions facilitated by Skinsback concerned the buying and selling of gaming content material, the transactions on G2A concerned actual cash. Clothoff employs so-called “sellers”, or salespeople out there 24/7 in chats for individuals who want to purchase cash to create pornographic deepfakes. They’ve repeatedly instructed patrons to pay them secretly by means of G2A.
Customers have been instructed to purchase sure gaming keys from a reseller account on G2A and that, after this key was bought, they might award the purchaser with cash of their Clothoff account.
One account making these gross sales on G2A has the username BestGameSale. It has amassed 1000’s of optimistic evaluations and gross sales.
Bellingcat discovered one other G2A account promoting a number of the similar online game keys and utilizing an identical titles of the merchandise they have been promoting.
That account has the username Battlekeys_com. Neither of the accounts replied to direct messages from Bellingcat. G2A stated the accounts are underneath investigation.
“Solely verified companies can promote at our platform and we’re ensuring that they’re legally compliant in each approach, not simply in the mean time of registration, but additionally throughout their exercise on {the marketplace},” stated G2A, in an announcement. “Every vendor undergoes periodic audits. However, we’re conscious that conditions just like the one you will have described are going down by third-party brokers.”
G2A additionally stated that it contacted Clothoff, informing them “that each one actions breaking regulation rules are unacceptable for us. We additionally determined to report the case to the suitable authorities.” When requested the place these reviews have been made, G2A stated it was making reviews within the international locations of origin of the businesses in query (BestGameSale has a Delaware deal with on its profile, whereas Battlekeys_com lists a New Zealand deal with).
The AI deepfake community’s ties to video video games don’t finish there.
You’ll recall, as famous above, that an organization known as GG Expertise LTD was listed on a number of websites throughout the community. GG Expertise can be listed because the contact on the backside of a online game skins web site, CSCase.
CSCase additionally listed Ernst & Younger’s (EY) Cyprus affiliate on the backside of its homepage. Nevertheless, a spokesperson for EY confirmed that the accounting agency, together with its Cyprus affiliate, has no relation to or enterprise with CSCase, GG Expertise, DrawNudes, or any of the businesses talked about on this story. Their title was faraway from CSCase’s web site shortly thereafter.
CSCase didn’t reply to a request for remark.
It doesn’t finish there. GG Expertise was additionally listed on one other web site for promoting online game content material, Russia-based GGSel.web. GGSel at present lists a Russian LLC as its proprietor, however a number of cached pages of GGSel’s web site on Yandex and Bing record GG Expertise because the proprietor from March 2023 to Might 2023.
Archived and cached pages web site additionally reveals it beforehand listed an organization registered in Valencia known as Intelligence Blockchain Resolution SL — Spanish company registration paperwork present that Vitalii Ionov, a Valencia-based entrepreneur who will seem once more later on this story, is its sole director. On his LinkedIn profile, Ionov, says he’s a board member at GGSel.
One other gaming skins and content material web site getting used to gather funds is IGV or iGVault. A Telegram bot requested customers who requested to pay with “bank card/Apple Pay/Google Pay,” to as a substitute buy a “VIP Member” package deal from a vendor known as “AIPhoto” on IGV.
Over every week, this one account on IGV made round 200 gross sales for AI non-consensual picture credit.
Enter Aurora Borealis
There’s a single firm listed on the profile of one of many G2A accounts that was making gross sales for Clothoff. Details about the agency reveals a regarding path of proof pointing to at least one distinguished figurehead who could also be behind the community of nonconsensual deepfake platforms that additionally contains Nudify, Undress, and DrawNudes.
On the “About” web page of the “Bestgamesale” account an ‘Aurora Borealis Restricted Legal responsibility Firm’ is listed.
Aurora Borealis is included within the US state of Delaware utilizing a Registered Agent enterprise that enables folks to simply arrange an organization there. (Delaware is a famous haven for tax evasion and company secrecy).
On its web site, which lists a cellphone quantity with an Atlanta, Georgia space code, Aurora says it’s an IT options firm. It lists G2A amongst its “companions”. Nevertheless, G2A instructed Bellingcat that it has no partnerships with Aurora and has contacted them asking they take away the declare from their web site.
The corporate’s CEO, Vitalii Ionov, is a Russian primarily based in Valencia, Spain. Ionov can be listed because the CEO of a fintech firm known as IBS Tech. Each the Aurora and IBS Tech websites have a virtually an identical format.
On its web site, IBS Tech additionally boasts of a partnership with G2A, in addition to one with Microsoft. Nevertheless, when contacted for remark, G2A stated this isn’t true and Microsoft stated it has no report of a partnership with IBS Tech. That makes two firms led by Ionov which have falsely represented themselves as companions of different firms.
Ionov, Aurora Borealis Restricted, and IBS Tech didn’t reply to requests for remark.
Additional solidifying Ionov’s connection to the community of deepfake platforms is the opposite G2A account that has been suspended for potential participation in illicit gross sales. That consumer, battlekeys_com, lists an organization known as Battlekeys Restricted in New Zealand on its “About” web page.
Battlekeys Restricted’s enterprise filings in New Zealand present that the corporate registered in 2017 and lists two Russian nationals, Ioulia Oundakova and Igor Klokov, as house owners. Nevertheless, the information additionally say that, as of 2023, the corporate solely had two shareholders: Sergei Detsina and Vitalii Ionov, with Ionov proudly owning 96 out of 100 shares.
In the meantime, on her LinkedIn web page, certainly one of Ionov’s workers listed on the IBS Tech web site says that she at present works for Battlekeys, establishing yet one more hyperlink between the 2 firms he leads and the G2A accounts that have been dealing with funds for Clothoff.
As talked about above, Ionov says on LinkedIn that he’s a Board Member of the Russia-based online game key firm GGsel. GGSel beforehand listed GG Expertise LTD as an affiliated entity on its web site. GG Expertise LTD, once more, was additionally listed as an affiliated entity on the DrawNudes web site. Altogether, this situates the varied entities affiliated with Ionov inside the community behind DrawNudes Clothoff, Nudify, and Undress.
Following the Cash
It’s not simply online game websites. The community containing Clothoff, Nudify, Undress, and Drawnudes additionally makes use of, or has tried to make use of, over a dozen fee suppliers to surreptitiously acquire cash for promoting “cash” to make nonconsensual pornographic deepfakes.
Most mainstream fee suppliers ban promoting companies that permit for the creation of nonconsensual pornographic deepfakes — a lot of them ban the sale of grownup supplies and companies altogether.
Key to avoiding detection from fee processors are the sooner talked about “sellers”, who will be contacted 24/7 to facilitate secretive transactions by offering hyperlinks to accounts that aren’t publicly marketed.
The method is pretty subtle, accepting a wide range of completely different fee choices relying on a web site customer’s IP deal with and nation of origin. Sellers can present patrons with a number of methods to pay for tokens by means of a lot of widespread and traditional fee suppliers.
Under you’ll be able to see a pattern of over a dozen fee choices provided by Clothoff and DrawNudes, a lot of which have been rotated out and in in latest weeks and months.
The sellers, in these instances, refer patrons to particular person accounts and typically even faux web sites that may usually be untraceable by or not less than not apparent to most fee suppliers.
For instance, one TLD of Undress, says it accepts funds with main bank cards. When a consumer opts to pay, they’re redirected to a different web page hosted on a web site known as ‘AIGenerations.web’ that makes use of a fee processor known as 2checkout.
In one other instance, a TLD of Nudify used Stripe to solicit funds with bank cards, banks, and even Money App (the account stopped working after Bellingcat contacted Stripe). On this case, funds have been redirected by means of a web site known as ‘GeneratePhotoAI.com.’ We have been capable of determine Stripe because the processor by utilizing Chrome’s built-in developer instruments.
In one other case, a vendor on Clothoff provided a person PayPal account to gather fee (the account was deleted after Bellingcat contacted PayPal for remark).
In yet one more case, a Clothoff vendor offered a hyperlink to a web site, disguised to appear to be a pc restore web site. The location ran on the ecommerce platform Shopify. Clothoff solely used a Shopify area and didn’t use the corporate’s companies to course of funds — as a substitute, fee processing on the positioning was carried out by means of PayPal. The location was disabled after Bellingcat contacted Shopify.
The Clothoff, Nudify, Undress, and DrawNudes community additionally takes benefit of crypto funds and, for this, have variously used NOWPayments, Alchemy Pay, Coinbase, and Plisio. These companies didn’t appear to make use of any redirecting tactic however moderately appeared to take funds immediately.
For instance, once we chosen the choice to buy cash by means of certainly one of Nudify’s websites, they offered an identification code and linked us to pay immediately with Alchemy Pay which accepts Visa, Mastercard, Apple Pay, and Google Pay. After clicking on the choice to buy cash through crypto for each Clothoff and DrawNudes, we have been linked to a Coinbase account known as “ClothOffAI.” Each domains used the identical Coinbase account. Equally, for Plisio, the identical account title and picture are used.
Coinbase is of specific be aware on this case, because it prohibits the usage of its companies for grownup content material and companies. As well as, to enchantment to customers who could also be hesitant to buy cryptocurrency, one of many web sites, Nudify, offers clear and thorough directions on the way to buy and ship crypto by means of PayPal. There’s a robust push on these websites to maneuver in the direction of crypto, the place there may be much less oversight on transactions.
In one other case, Undress makes use of Patreon, a subscription-based crowdfunding platform that lets on-line creators put content material behind a paywall, to gather funds. A Telegram bot on the positioning instructs customers to, join a month-to-month, recurring Patreon fee and offers them with a redirect hyperlink that masks the referral to the positioning. In reality, the redirect web site used is among the domains we discovered on a devoted server.
Patreon suspended the account after being contacted for remark. “Patreon has zero tolerance for pages that characteristic non-consensual intimate imagery, in addition to for pages that encourage others to create or buy non-consensual intimate imagery,” an organization spokesperson stated in an emailed assertion. “Following an intensive evaluation, the account reported violates our insurance policies and has been suspended and eliminated.”
Once we requested about paying by means of PhonePe, we got a QR code linking to a special particular person’s account that accepted Google Pay, Amazon Pay, and PayTM. By decentralising their fee programs, their cash path is effectively hidden and offers a number of layers of safety from each the fee processing firms whose Phrases of Service they’re violating and from investigators. These transactions would look like a daily exercise to those processors.
Hidden Figures and a Pretend CEO
Maybe the strangest discovery by means of this complete saga was that an AI running a blog web site hosted unique interviews with each the “CEO” of Clothoff and the “Founder” of Undress.
The interviews themselves learn like ChatGPT responses to prompts or poorly written prose that no govt would think about a advertising coup. Much more fascinating is that the headshots of those folks look like AI-generated. This was significantly odd because the different interviews on the web site seem to characteristic actual folks.
The proprietor of the web site instructed Bellingcat that the images have been equipped to his firm by Clothoff and Undress and that his employees carried out the interviews over e-mail with out ever interacting with the themes. He admitted one of many profile images did look like AI-generated
He added that his web site assumed Clothoff and Undress have been credible firms given they’ve “press” sections on their web sites claiming to have been lined in main shops like The Guardian, BBC, ABC Information, and Forbes (these claims don’t look like true). After being contacted, the proprietor eliminated the Clothoff interview from the web site and stated the opposite is pending investigation.
The AI-generated CEO and Vitalii Ionov aren’t the one figures related to the community. A path of firms registered internationally revealed different people with ties to Clothoff, Nudify, Undress, and DrawNudes. You will need to be aware that, given completely different laws in numerous jurisdictions, not all the firms with hyperlinks to the platforms will be totally assessed and lots of use digital workplace companies to arrange an deal with in a selected nation or state.
Golden Falcon FZCO was listed on three of the redirect web sites we discovered. This firm is registered within the United Arab Emirates, in one of many free commerce zones established within the nation. Due to this, we weren’t capable of lookup who registered the corporate. In the course of the course of this investigation, the web site that Golden Falcon set as much as host some generic details about the corporate was taken offline.
Itai Tech LTD is listed on Undress and Nudify domains. Additionally it is hosted on cached variations of Clothoff domains. It normally has the identical London deal with listed on these web sites, besides for 2 websites the place it lists a faux US-based deal with, however with the identical UK postcode.
In accordance with Corporations Home, the UK’s public registry of enterprise entities, Ita Tech was included in August 2023 to Anastasija Provotorova utilizing an deal with with a digital workplace primarily based in London. This London deal with on the submitting matches that on the web sites. The submitting lists Provotorova as the one proprietor.
From this submitting, we have been capable of be taught Provotorova’s age and foremost nation of residence, Latvia. Understanding that there are sometimes completely different spellings between Cyrillic and English spellings of names, we looked for individuals who would match with the knowledge we did have throughout a number of social media platforms, together with VK and different Russian-based websites. This led us to Anastasia/Nastya/Nastia Provotorova, a girl from Riga, Latvia who matches in age with the title on the submitting.
As soon as we discovered her VK profile, we have been capable of find her different social media accounts as she used related images all through her profiles. Provotorova has not too long ago relocated to Thailand and, in line with her LinkedIn profile, is at present an funding guide for an actual property firm.
She didn’t reply to a request for remark.
GG Expertise LTD, which has come up a number of occasions on this investigation and is listed on DrawNudes, a fee redirect web site, and a number of other online game DLC web sites. In accordance with Corporations Home, it was included in April 2022 by Yevhin Bondarenko, whose first title can be transliterated as Evgeniy and Evgeny elsewhere. This submitting additionally matches the UK deal with listed on the deepfake and online game web sites the place GG Expertise was named.
Notably, in June 2022, Bondarenko up to date the deal with related to this incorporation to a location in London, utilizing an analogous digital service as Itai Tech LTD. Bondarenko is the one listed proprietor and sole director of GG Expertise LTD.
Going off the unique location data, age, and listed Ukrainian residency, we have been capable of determine Bondarenko’s social media profiles, which match his age, and site in Ukraine. Bondarenko identifies himself as a founding father of an analytics firm on his Instagram account and resides in Ukraine.
Bondarenko didn’t reply to a request for remark.
Throughout this investigation, DrawNudes modified the corporate listed on its web site to Sol Ecom Inc., which was included in Florida in america in September 2021. This enterprise has a single proprietor, Kyrylo Ivannyk, who initially used an deal with in Miami, Florida, and at present makes use of a mailing deal with in Los Angeles, CA.
We discovered an inactive enterprise known as Sol Amber Group LTD registered within the UK in his title, which additionally revealed his birthdate and Ukrainian nationality. Utilizing what we learn about Ivannyk’s title and this firm’s title, we have been capable of determine a protracted record of different enterprise ventures and web sites run by Ivannyk, not less than on paper, within the US, and the choice spellings of his title, Kirill/Cyril Ivannik.
This features a concrete enterprise registered in New Jersey, a Muslim rosary and bead firm registered within the UK, a digital advertising model in New York, a line of male enhancement dietary supplements, and lots of identically branded web sites promoting every part from pet toys to electronics.
Ivannyk didn’t reply to a request for remark.
Lastly, on Clothoff’s foremost web site, they record an organization known as BS Europe OÜ, a registered entity in Estonia. Matching up with the deal with listed on Clothoff’s web site led us to an incorporation report of BS Europe OÜ, filed initially in February 2016 to a Serhii Cheromush. He’s listed as the only real proprietor.
Serhii Cheromush additionally goes by Sergey/Sergii Cheremush and has a big enterprise and social media presence. Cheromush has a number of enterprise incorporations in his title, together with one known as ‘BestSeller Group USA LLC’ registered in Florida in america. Cheromush is initially from Russia and, in line with his Instagram, gained digital citizenship in Estonia in 2020 and moved to Los Angeles the 12 months after. He seems to be lively within the entrepreneur group, in addition to excited about AI applied sciences. He not too long ago hosted a meetup centred round utilizing AI expertise in numerous enterprise alternatives, utilizing an AI-generated picture to advertise the occasion.
Cheromush didn’t reply to a request for remark.
The Massive Image
It’s abundantly clear that DrawNudes, Clothoff, Nudify, and Undress function in methods designed to secretly funnel cash by means of respectable fee suppliers by faking who they’re and what they’re promoting. They’re additionally included in methods to cover the identification of their operators, the people who find themselves in the end earning money off of the manufacturing of nonconsensual deepfake pornography.
The 4 core websites, which look like a part of a decentralized community, permit the sale of those doubtful companies to go on even when one fee supplier or one fee processor goes down, and because the firms soar from one illicit gross sales technique to a different.
There are a number of redundancies and layers within the group to forestall any lull in amassing funds, and the rising demand for pornographic deepfakes seems to have saved them on a development trajectory. In reality, Clothoff is at present seeking to rent extra ‘sellers’ to not solely sustain with demand, however to be out there 24/7 to potential clients.
Nevertheless, these organisations haven’t completely lined their tracks. There are actual individuals who have lent their names, and even their firms, to those platforms.
Michael Sheldon and Nathan Patin contributed analysis.
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